1. An Introductory Survey
“When the sixteenth century began,” one historian has asserted, “there was no intelligent man alive in Europe who doubted that some degree of reformation of the [Roman] Catholic Church was an urgent necessity. The difference of opinion concerned the degree.”2 The question was: would the reformation merely be of immorality among the clergy and matters of that nature, or would it be a complete revolution, on the basis of the Bible, in doctrine, worship and practice? In Scotland, for instance, there was such a revolution; in Italy, on the other hand, the degree of reformation was very limited, and before long it was violently snuffed out, particularly by the efforts of the Inquisition.
It is important to note that, during the Reformation period – and indeed until the nineteenth century – Italy was not a single country. It was made up of a number of separate states, some of them under the direct rule of the Papacy even in civil affairs.
1The first part of a paper given at last year’s Theological Conference, somewhat enlarged.
2Philip McNair, Peter Martyr in Italy, Clarendon Press, 1967, p 2.
From the twelfth century, the Waldensians had maintained a witness for scriptural truth in the far north of Italy, and in 1231 Pope Gregory IX issued what Thomas M’Crie calls “a furious bull”3 against them, ordering them to be sought out and given over to the civil authorities to be punished. But in this paper we will largely confine ourselves to what happened in the sixteenth century.
By 1500, the Roman Catholic Church was seriously astray from scriptural standards. In particular, M’Crie points to “the vices of the clergy, their neglect of religious instruction, the consequent ignorance of the people, the sale of ecclesiastical offices”. He adds that Roman Catholic writers admitted that “the court of Rome had become more corrupt than any of the secular courts of Europe. . . . The individuals who filled the papal chair for some time before the Reformation openly indulged in vices, over which the increasing knowledge of the age should have told them, in point of prudence, to throw a veil” (p 20). An Italian writer of the time noted: “Having raised themselves to earthly power, the popes gradually lost sight of the salvation of souls and divine precepts. . . . Their concern was no longer to maintain sanctity of life, to promote religion, or to show charity to mankind; but to accumulate treasures, to raise armies, to wage wars against Christians” (p 21). Not surprisingly, the passage containing these sentences was struck out by the Roman censor before the book could be published.
The popes’ behaviour made Italians careless about religion, while continuing to practise the outward forms of the Roman Church. One might think that such people would be easily detached from their nominal religion but, in fact, as M’Crie notes, the indifferent who follow the outward forms of religion are least open to conviction of the truth. He says, “The spiritual and humbling doctrines of the gospel, as brought forward, simply and without disguise, by the first Reformers, are offensive to the pride of the human heart” (p 23).
Luther had posted his 95 theses on a church door in Wittenberg in 1517; within two years some of this Reformer’s books were being sold in Italy. In 1520, 10 copies of Luther’s books were brought to Venice, but before long the Pope prohibited the sale of the Reformer’s books. A search for them resulted in just one copy being found and it was defective. Yet in spite of the efforts to suppress Protestant literature in Italy, not only were Luther’s books being circulated and read, but also those of Reformers such as Melanchthon, Zwingli and Bucer. There were many who could recognise the errors of the
3M’Crie, History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy in the Sixteenth Century, Edinburgh and London, 1856, p 2. The preface to the original edition is dated 1827. Further references to this volume are given in brackets in the body of the article. A papal bull is an edict issued by a pope.
Church of Rome, yet had no spiritual understanding of the truth. But some, by the grace of God, did possess that understanding.
One of them was Egidio di Porta. He wrote to Zwingli, the Zurich Reformer, in 1525: “It is now 14 years since I, under the impulse of a certain pious feeling, but not according to knowledge, withdrew from my parents and put on the black cowl [that is, he became a monk]. If I did not become learned and devout, I at least appeared to be so, and for seven years discharged the office of a preacher of God’s Word – alas, in deep ignorance. I savoured not the things of Christ; I ascribed nothing to faith, all to works. But God would not permit [me] to perish for ever. He brought me to the dust. I was made to cry out, ‘Lord, what wilt Thou have me to do?'” (p 30). Di Porta decided that he ought to read Zwingli’s writings, in the expectation that he would find an answer to his questions. He was not disappointed. Indeed he went on to teach the truth to some of the other monks. They were clearly not very receptive, for he complains to Zwingli that “they are full of pride and self-conceit” (p 30).
The Scriptures were published in Italy in the original languages, and a Benedictine abbot caused a stir when he published a revision of the Latin Vulgate version4 and in the preface revealed that he had corrected that translation from the original languages. But some of those who were engaged in the work of translating the Scriptures continued to be very much in agreement with Roman Catholic errors. Yet M’Crie comments, “In surveying this portion of history, it is impossible not to admire the arrangements of providence, when we perceive monks and bishops, and cardinals and popes, active in forging and polishing those weapons which were soon to be turned against themselves and which they afterwards would fain have blunted and laboured to decry as unlawful and empoisoned” (p 38).
An Italian version of the Scriptures was printed in Venice in 1471 and was repeatedly reprinted, but it was translated from the Vulgate. Other translations were made in the sixteenth century, including some by Roman Catholics in opposition to translations made by men with Protestant views. The practice of Italian students spending some time studying in German universities, and vice versa, had some effect on spreading Reformed religion in Italy.
It is amazing to read a Roman Catholic bishop’s explanation of the situation after the Emperor, King Charles V of Spain, had attacked Rome with an army, causing the Pope to flee the city, and had taken possession of it for some time. The bishop asked, “Why have such calamities befallen us?” He answers
4The Vulgate translation was favoured by Rome and was used as a basis for rendering the Bible into other languages, including English – though generally Rome was opposed to ordinary people reading the Scriptures in their own language.
his own question: “Because we are citizens, not of the holy city Rome, but of Babylon the wicked city. . . . Formerly it was inhabited by a holy nation, a peculiar people, but now by the people of Gomorrah, a depraved seed, wicked children, unfaithful priests, the companions of thieves” (quoted, p 43). Although the Pope was among those who heard the bishop’s speech, these words, it seems, had no significant effect on the Vatican. And the bishop had considerably more to say in developing his charges against Rome; he quoted Isaiah 1:21: “How is the faithful city become an harlot! It was full of judgement; righteousness lodged in it; but now murderers.” And he referred to the Book of Revelation to justify identifying Babylon as Rome.
McNair stresses that the doctrine of justification by faith exerted a crucial influence on the outlook of those whose desire for reformation went beyond a hope for a major improvement in the outward morality of its clergy. Yet many of them went on to conform to Roman Catholic doctrine, while “many more were martyred [and] a distinguished few were compelled by crisis of conscience and the logic of events” to recognise that further reformation was indeed necessary.5
Book Reviews1
Esther, by Thomas M’Crie, published by the Reformation Press, paperback, 221 pages, £11.90.
This study on the Book of Esther comprises a series of lectures by Thomas M’Crie, first published posthumously in 1838. He was born in 1772 and began his successful ministry in Edinburgh in 1796. He was regarded as the leading minister of the Secession churches; his “long and fruitful ministry” lasted until his death, aged 62, in 1835.
In Commenting and Commentaries, CH Spurgeon approvingly quoted a later commentator on Esther: “There is an ancient fable of a king who was gifted with the power of turning everything he touched into gold; and this eminent divine and historian [M’Crie] possessed remarkably the gift of rendering every subject he handled so precious, as at least to discourage anyone from attempting to follow in his track. In his lectures upon the book of Esther, he has certainly left little for any to say who may come after him.”
M’Crie answers the often-raised objection that the name of God is not to be found in the book. “This book is only a part of sacred Scripture, and borrows light from others. The Spirit, who searches all things, is the best
5McNair, Peter Martyr in Italy, p 9.
1The books reviewed here may be obtained from the Free Presbyterian Bookroom.
judge when and where and how often to mention ‘the dreadful’ [awe-inspiring] name of the Lord our God. And what though the name of God is suppressed, provided His works, and wonders, and benefits are announced and celebrated?” He quotes Matthew Henry, “Though the name of God be not in it, His finger is”. “All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness” (2 Tim 3:16).
The book is easily understood and very readable. Its 18 chapters give practical and spiritual guidance based on the events of the Book of Esther. M’Crie traces the narrative from the fall of Vashti to the raising of Mordecai, relating all to the foreknowledge and providence of God. Many appropriate biblical comparisons and Scriptures are quoted.
M’Crie concludes, “In general, we have here a golden leaf in the book of providence, teaching us that the Most High rules in the kingdom of men and that His government extends over the whole earth. We see the hand of God directing, controlling, overruling, and managing the events of time and the hearts of men. . . . For nothing can befall a people, a family, or an individual, without the divine appointment or permission. God rules among the nations. . . . We learn from this portion of Scripture the peculiar care with which God watches over His Church and His people. The Church has been like a lily among thorns – like a spark in the ocean – like a besieged city. But no weapon formed against her will prosper. . . . The way in which Esther and Mordecai were raised up for this purpose was very remarkable, and recalls many other instances of a similar kind recorded in Scripture. What could Mordecai and Esther have done for their people if God had not placed them in situations of influence in which their voice might be heard and their patriotism find scope for its exercise?”
This new edition of Esther by M’Crie is well produced with clear print. Helpful modern equivalents of obscure words and phrases have been inserted in square brackets. It is an excellent and edifying book and can be thoroughly recommended.
F R Daubney
None Other Name, compiled by L J van Valen, published by Reformation Press, paperback, 390 pages, £16.95.
This book of daily readings is compiled from the works of 12 well-known Scottish ministers of the nineteenth century, such as Robert Murray M’Cheyne, John Duncan, Jonathan Ranken Anderson, John Kennedy and Hugh Martin. The “twelve” are, on the whole, well selected from the galaxy of eminent preachers then occupying the pulpits of Scotland. A month of daily readings is allocated to each of these ministers. In the preface to the
book, attention is drawn to how these men were instrumental in promoting vital godliness throughout our land. The only slight anomaly is the inclusion of Horatius Bonar, who sadly went astray in supporting the Moody and Sankey revivalism, which came into the land in the late nineteenth century.
The quality of the content chosen for each daily reading throughout the book is first class. The passages are well chosen and very readable. In them the reader will find a satisfactory combination of rich theological and deep experimental preaching. There are very few exceptions to this rule. One is found in the entry for January 16, where there is a rather loose theological statement from M’Cheyne, great though he was, on the humiliation of the Divine Redeemer, including the statements that “He left glory” and left “the love of the Father”. Another is found in the entry for May 12, where the passage selected from Andrew Bonar is too prescriptive in describing the way liberty in preaching will be expressed in the speaker’s voice being uniformly quiet. While raucous shouting must be undesirable, Bonar seems to forget that the Saviour Himself at times “stood and cried” when preaching to multitudes of perishing sinners.
These isolated instances aside, None Other Name is as good a book of daily readings as can be found. Part of its effectiveness may be due to the fact that most of the passages were not written as mere devotional exercises, but are the utterances of men while preaching the gospel with the Holy Ghost sent down from above. As a result, profound and beautiful insights into the truth are found throughout the book.
A reviewer is spoilt for choice in selecting striking and precious quotes. John Kennedy, speaking on how those that passed by the Saviour’s cross reviled Him, applies the truth to his hearers in the following way, “So do many still pass on to death, treating with contempt the Christ and the call of God in the gospel. You, sinner, can act the same part with those revilers of old, for Christ is as surely near to you in the gospel as He was to them in the flesh. He is lifted up before you in the gospel quite beside you, as surely as He was lifted on the cross quite beside them. You can pass Him by as surely as they did. And passing Him by you are, careless sinner, while the Lord is calling to arrest you. He speaks to you from heaven, to bring you to a stand that you may cease rushing heedless hellwards” (September 11).
Thomas Chalmers describes the mediatorial work of Christ in the following language, “He alone, in the whole range of universal being, is able to lay His hand upon you and shield you from the justice of the Almighty, and to lay His hand upon God and stay the fury of the avenger” (August 4).
Finally Andrew Bonar, in stressing the importance of a public profession of Christ, makes a beautiful use of the example of Joseph of Arimathaea,
“On that day the Lord will call forth Joseph by name, and present him to the Father: ‘Father, this is the man who, in that dark hour, when there was not a disciple to own Me at the cross, or give Me the last rites of sepulture, risked name and wealth, and honour and life, that he might show love to Me, who had not a place where to lay My head.’ On that day the Father will bring out one of the brightest of His crowns, and put it upon the head of Joseph, who confessed Christ in the hour of danger and reproach. Young men, you may well covet that great reward” (May 5).
We give this book our wholehearted recommendation.
(Rev) I D MacDonald
Times of Refreshing, The life and work of Alexander Macleod, Minister of Uig and Rogart, published by Reformation Press, paperback, 132 pages, £8.70.
This book includes:
- a biography, derived from Disruption Worthies of the Highlands
- excerpts from Macleod’s diary from the time of his settlement in Uig in June 1824 until January 1829
- the only four surviving sermons of Macleod
- an appendix giving a description of the parish of Uig that Macleod wrote in 1833.
The editor informs us that “Alexander Macleod (1786-1869) was born in Sutherland and became a minister in 1818. After two short ministries in Dundee and Cromarty, he served God for 19 years on the Isle of Lewis. He then returned to the mainland, where he served two further Highland congregations, at Lochalsh and Rogart.”
When Macleod arrived in Uig in 1824 there were no Evangelical ministers and only a few true Christians on the island of Lewis. Although there were between 800 and 900 communicants in the parish of Uig, ignorance and ungodliness were so widespread that Macleod thought it inappropriate to hold the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. He began an intensive process of teaching and home visits to press home the instruction delivered from the pulpit.
A religious awakening took place and in 1827 Macleod reinstated the communion season. John Macdonald of Ferintosh (the Apostle of the North) assisted on that occasion. Seven thousand gathered in the open air and a number of true believers sat at the Lord’s table. The awakening affected other parishes, and pulpits which had long been occupied by “Moderates” were taken by godly ministers such as Finlay Cook, John Macrae and Robert Finlayson.
Macleod came out of the Church of Scotland at the Disruption in 1843
but was translated from Uig to Lochalsh in December of that year and to Rogart in May 1846, where he remained until his death in 1869. His ministry in Rogart was blessed, though not to the extent that it had been in Uig. The obituary of Angus Murray, Dornoch, records that he regarded Macleod as equal to John Kennedy, Dingwall, although not so gifted. He said, “If Mr Macleod had not liberty he was very poor. I once heard him, and I believe he took out his watch ten times in a quarter of an hour. But, boy, all at once, as if you turned the tap of a full barrel, he could not pour out all that came from the Lord into his soul. Before, he longed to stop, but now when the Lord came, he did not know how to stop.” It is sad that only four of Alexander Macleod’s sermons exist but those we have are full of spiritually profitable material.
As is usual with the publications of Reformation Press, the book is attractively presented with clear print and well-laid-out pages. The footnotes are very helpful. This little book is interesting and uplifting and is highly recommended.
F R Daubney